Welsh Journals

devolution and the European Union raise questions about the future of the United Kingdom, the exploration of the re-emergence of a sense of national identity in twelfth-century England is timely and complements Ann Williams's recent study of the English in the century or so after their defeat in 1066. Several of the essays argue that this re-emergence occurred earlier than has generally been accepted, by c.1140 rather than the late twelfth century. Furthermore, at its heart was an identification with England as the patria of the new landowning class (apart from the wealthiest aristocrats and the monarchy, who retained considerable estates in France), even if, as with Geoffrey Gaimar in the late 1130s, the language chosen to express that identity was French. This sense of identity both appropriated the Anglo-Saxon past and articulated the values of northern French aristocratic society, in particular, chivalry, defined here as a secular code of behaviour governing the treatment of aristocratic and 'gentle' opponents in war, whose introduction into England is presented as a civilizing consequence of Norman conquest. Peoples such as the Irish, Welsh or inhabitants of Galloway, whose mores were deemed to fall short of the standards demanded by chivalry, notably because they continued to capture slaves in war after this practice had ceased in England in the late eleventh century, were portrayed by English historians from William of Malmesbury onwards as barbarians. Of course, the concentration on the outlook of the political elite as reflected in narrative sources does not provide, nor, in fairness, is it claimed to provide, a comprehensive discussion of national identity in twelfth-century England. Recovering how the majority of the population thought about such matters is, of course, extremely difficult given the nature of the available evidence. Some questions could, however, be pursued further, such as the extent to which a sense of shared nationality encouraged the new Francophile English to identify themselves with their 'old English' peasant dependents. The discussion throughout these essays is lively, cogent and usually convincing. Thus, to take two points relating to the history of Wales, a good, though necessarily unprovable, case is made for linking Geoffrey of Monmouth's location of Arthur's court at Caerleon with the recovery of Caerleon in 1136 by the Welsh lords of Gwynllwg (ch. 2), while the Lord Rhys is shown to have been less committed to peace during his detente with Henry n than has often been assumed (ch. 4). As this last example reveals-another is his essay, first published in 1982, on the introduction of knight service into England (ch. I I)- John Gillingham does not shy away from controversy. His readiness to challenge received opinion together with his ability to pose important new questions ensure that this collection is not only stimulating but also highly illuminating. HUW PRYCE Bangor